As this happened, the word nomen came to be applied to these surnames, and the original personal name came to be called the praenomen, or "forename", as it was usually recited first. [20], Under the "High Empire", the new aristocracy began adopting two or more nomina – a practice which has been termed 'binary nomenclature'. Even then, not all Roman citizens bore cognomina, and until the end of the Republic the cognomen was regarded as somewhat less than an official name. [11][18], Although women's praenomina were infrequently used in the later Republic, they continued to be used, when needed, into imperial times. Surviving inscriptions from the fifth century rarely provide a citizen's full nomenclature. [2], The proliferation of cognomina in the later centuries of the Empire led some grammarians to classify certain types as agnomina. This number gradually dwindled to about eighteen praenomina by the 1st century BCE, of which perhaps a dozen were common. This was the most democratic of Rome's three main legislative assemblies of the Roman Republic, in that all citizens could participate on an equal basis, without regard to wealth or social status. Maxima, Maio, and Mino were also used as praenomina, although it may be debated whether they represent true personal names. Furthermore, a number of the oldest and most influential patrician families made a habit of choosing unusual names; in particular the Fabii, Aemilii, Furii, Claudii, Cornelii, and Valerii all used praenomina that were uncommon amongst the patricians, or which had fallen out of general use. Although filiation was common throughout the history of the Republic and well into imperial times, no law governed its use or inclusion in writing. These names appear almost arbitrarily, much like praenomina, and probably were intended to imply nobility, although ultimately they became so common as to lose any real significance. The patrician gentes in particular tended to limit the number of praenomina that they used far more than the plebeians, which was a way of reinforcing the exclusiveness of their social status. Often these were discharged auxiliary soldiers, or the leaders of annexed towns and peoples. In the earliest period, the binomial nomenclature of praenomen and nomen that developed throughout Italy was shared by both men and women. [2][5], Many families avoided certain names, although the reasons varied. [3] Most praenomina were regularly abbreviated, and rarely written in full. [v] Although there was no law restricting the use of specific praenomina,[vi] the choice of the parents was usually governed by custom and family tradition. Names that might be nomina or cognomina have not been included. An example of the filiation of slaves and freedmen would be: Alexander Corneli L. s., "Alexander, slave of Lucius Cornelius", who upon his emancipation would probably become L. Cornelius L. l. Alexander, "Lucius Cornelius Alexander, freedman of Lucius"; it was customary for a freedman to take the praenomen of his former owner, if he did not already have one, and to use his original personal name as a cognomen. [7][4], In imperial times, Roman women were more likely to have praenomina if they had several older sisters. [1] Marcus Terentius Varro wrote that the earliest Italians used simple names. Two years later, Caesar was deified by the Roman Senate, and Octavian, as he was then known, was styled Divi f., "son of the divine (Caesar)", instead of C. f.. [1], Adding to the complexity of aristocratic names was the practice of combining the full nomenclature of both one's paternal and maternal ancestors, resulting in some individuals appearing to have two or more complete names. A number of emperors considered Imperator as a praenomen, and thus part of their names. At the age of eighteen in 44 BC, Octavius was nominated magister equitum by his granduncle, Gaius Julius Caesar, who held the office of dictator. They added new cognomina as they fought and conquered enemies and new lands, and their filiations recorded their descent from a series of gods. These abbreviations continue to be used by classical scholars. Thus, there was no need for a personal name unless there were multiple sisters in the same household. Over the course of the sixth century, as Roman institutions and social structures gradually fell away, the need to distinguish between nomina and cognomina likewise vanished. The son's original nomen (or occasionally cognomen) would become the basis of a new surname, formed by adding the derivative suffix -anus or -inus to the stem. [22], In order to reflect an illustrious pedigree or other connections, the aristocracy expanded the binary nomenclature concept to include other nomina from an individual's paternal and maternal ancestry. [3], Several names were used by only a few patrician families, although they were more widespread amongst the plebeians. A gens, which may be translated as "race", "family", or "clan", constituted an extended Roman family, all of whom shared the same nomen, and claimed descent from a common ancestor. Example: Gaius Iulius Caesar where: 1. During the Empire, a variety of new naming conventions developed which, while differing, were internally coherent. Thus, the inscription S. Postumius A. f. P. n. Albus Regillensis means "Spurius Postumius Albus Regillensis, of Aulus the son, of Publius the grandson".
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